Beginning in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost, the Christian faith spread by preaching the good news of salvation in Jesus Christ. The book of Acts tells how despite persecutions, the first Christians “preached the word wherever they went” (8:4). The early centuries of Islam followed a much different pattern. Already during the lifetime of Muhammad, his religion spread by the sword. At the time of his death, the prophet was ruler over most of Arabia. That pattern of conquest did not stop with his passing.
Spread of Islam under the Rightly Guided Caliphs
(632-661)
The early and formative history of Islam revolves around the first four successors of Muhammad, all of whom ruled from the city of Medina in Arabia. They took the title of caliph, which means “successor,” “deputy,” or “substitute,” and for centuries this was the designation of the leader of the Muslim community. The first four successors are known as the “Rightly Guided Caliphs,” since they personally knew and heard Muhammad and were guided by his living example. After them, Islam would break into diverse parties.
Abu Bakr was the first caliph. The father of Muhammad’s wife Aisha and one of the first converts to Islam, Abu Bakr had accompanied the prophet on the hijra from Mecca to Medina. After only two years as caliph, Abu Bakr died at the age of 63. During the short caliphate of Abu Bakr (632-4), Islam had been consolidated within Arabia and began to spread beyond the Arabian Peninsula.
Umar b. al-Khattab was the second caliph, appointed by Abu Bakr on his deathbed. He was the father of Muhammd’s wife Hafsa. Like Muhammad and Abu Bakr, he was from the Quraysh tribe. During his caliphate of this very capable ruler, the Muslims took the cities of Damascus and Jerusalem.
After twenty-six years of war, both of the great empires to the north of Arabia were in a state of bankruptcy and anarchy. In addition to that, the Arabs’ use of the camel gave them both speed and mobility. Perhaps more than anything else, the Muslims were inspired by their new religion, which promised them entrance into paradise if they should die in battle. Unlike the Byzantines and Persians who relied on professional, paid soldiers, every Muslim was in effect a soldier. Under Umar, many Arabs moved into the newly conquered areas, where the people were divided into two classes: Muslim rulers and non-Muslim subjects. Umar was stabbed to death at the hands of a Persian slave, an omen of the internal strife that would plague so much of Muslim history.
Uthman b. Affan became the third caliph. Aside from the continuing expansion of the empire under his generals, Uthman’s caliphate is noted especially for the establishing the Qur’an in the form it has come down to the present. All versions other than the official one were removed from libraries and burned. Muhammad b. Abu Bakr, son of the first caliph, led a rebellion and was involved in the stabbing death of the eighty-three year old leader while reading the Qur’an in his house in Medina.
Ali
Ali b. AbiTalib was the fourth caliph. Like Muhammad, he came from the Hashim clan of the Quraysh tribe. He was the prophet’s cousin and became his son-in-law when he married Muhammad’s daughter Fatima. After the prophet’s wife Khadija, Ali was probably the second convert to Islam.
From the start, his rule was marked with strife. Ali met his death by being stabbed in the brain by a poisoned sword. With the death of Ali, the early formative period of the four “Rightly Guided Caliphs” came to an end.
Early Islamic Empires:
The Umayyads
The Umayyad dynasty lasted almost a century, during which the Muslim capital moved from Medina in Arabia to Damascus in Syria. In spite of internal hostilities the even civil war, the Muslim empire continued to expand. This territory became known as the dar al-Islam—that is, the house of Islam—territory under Islamic sovereignty or areas where Islam is secure; and it stands in contrast to the dar al-harb—the abode of war—territory not under Muslim sovereignty, against which warfare for the propagation of Islam was considered acceptable.
In 680, Ali’s younger son Husain was killed at the battle of Karbala in Iraq. This historic event created an immense rift in the world of Islam. The followers of Ali’s family became known as the Shiites (the Arabic word shi’a means party, that is, the party of Ali). This is the largest minority group in Islam (the majority are known as Sunnis), concentrated mainly in Iran and southern Iraq. Ali and Husain, who is known to Shiites as the “Prince of the Martyrs,” are venerated and their burial places are considered holy sites and places of pilgrimages.
Under the Umayyads, Muslim armies marched through Spain and into France. Finally, at the battle of Tours in northwestern France, Muslim forces were met and stopped by Charles Martel (“the Hammer”). Only a century after Muhammad’s death, Islam now held sway over an empire that matched and even surpassed the great kingdoms of the past—including the Greeks under Alexander the Great and the Romans.
Early Islamic Empires:
The Abbasids (750-1258)
Under the Abbasid dynasty, the center of Muslim power shifted eastward to the city of Baghdad, which was founded as the capital on the Tigris River in 762. The 500 years of Abbasid power mark the golden age of Muslim civilization, producing, for example, great literature such as The Thousand and One Nights.
The Abbasid dynasty was also the epoch of the Crusades. In 1095, Pope Urban II called for a crusade to win back the city of Jerusalem from Muslim control. This set off 200 years of intermittent warfare between Christian Europe and Islam. The last Abbasid caliph was murdered by the Mongols, who came to power in the East under Genghis Khan, swept across Asia, and sacked the city of Baghdad.
“Gunpowder Empires”:
Moguls, Safavids, Ottomans
In the centuries following the fall of the Abbasids, three powerful empires arose, which were to play important roles in Muslim and world history: the Safavids in Iran, the Mughals in India, and the Ottomans in Turkey. These Muslim empires differed from the early empires in that they did not have Arab roots. They are sometimes called the “Gunpowder Empires” because they effectively used that newly developed weapon.
Each developed a unique civilization. The Safavids, for instance, are known for their artwork, as are the Mughals who built the Taj Mahal.
Ottoman Turkish Empire (1281-1924)
The Ottoman Turkish Empire was the longest-lived and greatest of these empires, with a legacy that continues to influence the world. For several centuries, the Turks had moved across the steppes of Asia, where they absorbed the Muslim religion, and through Asia Minor, until they eventually captured Constantinople (modern Istanbul), the capital of the Byzantine Empire and easternmost metropolis of Europe.
As the Muslims had entered Europe from the west during the time of the Ummayads, under the Ottoman Turks, they would reach deep into Europe from the east, twice threatening the city of Vienna. The Muslims threatened to overrun Europe, the very heart of the Christian church.
Luther and the Muslims
Lutheran history has long connections with Islam. In 1453, thirty years before Martin Luther was born, Constantinople had fallen to the Ottoman Turks. Under the rule of Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent, Ottoman power reached its zenith.
In 1529, the army of Suleyman moved far into Europe and besieged the city of Vienna. Writings flooded Europe with warnings of Turkish terrors. Luther wrote a short book, On War Against the Turk. In it he urged Emperor Charles V to defend his subjects, under attack from the Turks. Luther pointed out that Islam included “much glorification of the sword,” called for prayer, and outlined a number of Muslim doctrines that contradicted the Bible. At the same time, he described what the duty of the emperor was—and what it was not: “The emperor should seek nothing else than simply to perform the work and duty of his office, which is to protect his subjects . . . The emperor is not the head of Christendom or defender of the gospel or the faith.”
The Muslims were unable to take Vienna, but in 1541, Sultan Suleyman conquered Hungary and once again threatened Vienna along with the German lands lying beyond it. In his Appeal for Prayer Against the Turks, 1541, Luther spoke of the Turk as “our ‘schoolmaster.’ He has to discipline and teach us to fear God and to pray. Otherwise we will do what we have been doing—rot in sin and complacency.”
Luther called upon Christians to pray for the government and for “those who are bearing the brunt of battle” against the Turks who are “Satan’s army” and who had put Muhammad in the place of the Lord Jesus Christ. He went on to point out that the war against the Turks was a just war. He reminded Christians not to put their faith in human cleverness or might, but rather to commit everything to God and not give way to fear.
In 1542, Luther translated from Latin into German a critique of the Qur’an. He explained the purpose for this: “This way we Germans will know what an abominable religion Muhammad’s belief is, and we will be strengthened in our Christian faith.”
Muslim Decline and Revival
With the European discovery of the New World, along with the Renaissance, the Reformation, and the rise of modern science, Christian Europe emerged from the Middle Ages and entered the modern world. This same period marked a decline in Muslim countries. That decline was most marked in the once-dominating Ottoman Empire.
For a period of some 150 years, from about 1800 to 1950, Muslim lands were dominated by European colonial powers. The once glorious Muslim empires seemed little more than desert wastelands, divided by foreigners and unbelievers.
With the discovery and drilling of oil in the Middle East, Islamic hope revived. Especially within the last half century, Islam has again become a major force in the world. High birth rates and worldwide expansion make Islam the world’s fastest growing religion. Many Muslims are willing to lay down their lives to fight and destroy the enemies of Islam. The glories of the past are the dream for tomorrow.
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Further reading: Speaking The Truth In Love To Muslims (pages 21-38)
(discussion questions: pages 179-191)
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